====== Genetics ====== Three branches: * Molecular Genetics - molecules of gene, DNA, RNA, protein * Mendelian Genetics aka Transmission Genetics - how traits are passed to offspring * Population Genetics - how variation of trains in a population can lead to evolution These three branches can be studied in three contexts: * Bacteria * Archaea * Eukaryotes Likewise, in the context of * Evolution * Deisease and health * Society Course concept: * Flipped Classroom * Team Based Learning Terms gene chromosome DNA RNA Central Dogma: DNA is transcribed into mRNA. mRNA is translated into protein (trait). The protein can be thought of as a trait. This is a general guideline. There are variations in different cases. DNA -> RNA -> protein Transcription Translation $$ \text{DNA} \rightarrow \text{mRNA} \rightarrow \text{protein} $$ $$ \ce{DNA -> mRNA -> protein} $$ DNA is drawn as a double helix. Gene is a piece of the DNA chain. Gene Glut2 -> protein Glut2 Glut2 protein is a receptor on the outside of a cell that brings glucose into the cell. genetic variation = differences in inherited traits found in individuals in a population example: Glut2 mutation where glucose enters the cell less efficiently. This mutation is associated with Diabetes Type II. Genotype -> -> Phenotype ==== gene expression ==== == transcription == - DNA in a gene is copied to produce an RNA transcript called messenger RNA (mRNA). This is carred out by an enzyme called RNA polymerase which uses available bases from the nucleus of the cell to form the mRNA. == translation == ===== Gene Transfer ===== Gene transfer - the transfer of genetic information between organisms. Can be vertical or horizontal. Vertical gene transfer is better known as sexual reproduction, from parent to offspring. Horizontal gene transfer is directly from one organism to another. ==== Sexual Reproduction ==== vertical gene transfer translation ==== Horizontal Gene Transfer (HGT) ==== aka Lateral Gene Transfer (LGT) mechanisms * transformation * transduction * conjugation ===== Genetic Engineering ===== Gene delivery = artificial HGT ===== Notes ===== The cell nucleus contains 46 chromosomes, 23 pairs, 22 non-sexual, 21 sexual. One chromosome is a long strand of DNA. DNA is a protein. A section of DNA is named a gene. A gene defines a trait. The human body is made of proteins. Types of proteins: Membrane DNA One DNA molecule IE 1 chromosome contains billions of atoms arranged in pairs.one DNA molecule contains hundreds or thousands of genes. New line Gene expression The gene causes a protein molecule to be created. We want to understand intelligence. Intelligence is related to thought. our best guess is that intelligence and thought are functions of the brain. To understand the brain we study neurology and psychology. Neurology requires an understanding of neurotransmitters and hormones which are proteins. To understand proteins we must and understand basic chemistry, how atoms combine to molecules. A protein is a molecule. Furthermore one aspect of AI is named genetic algorithms. to understand these algorithms we need and understanding of genetics. Crispr, Casp competition every two years, AlphaFold from deep mind wins the competition, CRISPR, gene editing animation https://youtu.be/4YKFw2KZA5o ===DNA, the blueprint of life, how does it work=== https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zwibgNGe4aY Sapolsky Molecular Genetics I https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_dRXA1_e30o&list=PL150326949691B199&index=6 =====Biological Molecules===== https://opentextbc.ca/biology/chapter/2-3-biological-molecules/ ====Macromolecules==== carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids Biological macromolecules are organic, meaning that they contain carbon. In addition, they may contain hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur, and additional minor elements. ===Carbon=== $$\require{mhchem}$$ $\ce{CH4}$ = methane, the simplest organic carbon molecule {{ :chemfig-methane.png?400|}} Figure 2.13 These examples show three molecules (found in living organisms) that contain carbon atoms bonded in various ways to other carbon atoms and the atoms of other elements. (a) This molecule of stearic acid has a long chain of carbon atoms. $$\ce{C17H35CO2H}$$ (b) Glycine, a component of proteins, contains carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, and hydrogen atoms. (c) Glucose, a sugar, has a ring of carbon atoms and one oxygen atom. =====Proteins===== ====Protein Functions==== Functions: * structural, hold the shape of cells together * messengers, hormones, neurotransmitters, fit into other things, lock and key * enzymes - catalyze reactions * shape, changing to effect function, as in channel ====Protein Structure==== made up of amino acids, approximately 20 different amino acids ====Protein Synthesis==== genes specify proteins made up of amino acids, approximately 20 different amino acids, each amino acid coded for with a different DNA sequence ===DNA sequence=== three letters, three nucleotides DNA codes for amino acids a string of DNA coding for a sequence of amino acids, which get plugged together to create a protein RNA, an intermediary step (between DNA and protein) if you know the sequence of DNA: * you will know the sequence of RNA * you will know the amino acid sequence * you will know the protein that thus is made * you will know the shape of the protein * you will know the function of the protein everything about protein function is built around shape every effector protein fits into another effector protein like a "lock and key", hormones, neurotransmitters amino acids, attracted to or repelled from, water hydrophillic, hydrophobic amino acids are mostly swimming in water the sequence of amino acids determines the shape, based on the way amino acids fit together (all enzymes are proteins)\\ enzymes, catalyze a reaction, pulling something apart, or putting two things together\\ this is done with a change in shape by the protein channel four examples of a protein that changes shape to accomplish it's function * enzyme to break apart two things * enzyme to put two things together * channel, open or close to allow an ion through the cell wall * motor ====Central Dogma==== 13:00 DNA -> RNA -> Protein "DNA is running everything". no. DNA knows everything. 1970's Central Dogma denied discovery of RNA-based viruses 17:00 micromutations one letter is changed, miscopied, changed by radiation, etc. three base pairs ===== Resources ===== What is gene expression? https://www.yourgenome.org/facts/what-is-gene-expression#:~:text=Gene%20expression%20is%20the%20process,it%20is%20called%20gene%20expression%3F. Robert Sapolsky: Human Behavioral Biology, lectures 4-9, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_dRXA1_e30o&index=4&list=PL150326949691B199 Eric Lander: DNA Replication, MIT Fundamentals of Biology https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DRBREvFL19g Steven Gorsich, Central Michigan University: Introduction to Genetics, https://youtu.be/5Ez_NVQ5BY4