Genetics

Three branches:

• Molecular Genetics - molecules of gene, DNA, RNA, protein
• Mendelian Genetics aka Transmission Genetics - how traits are passed to offspring
• Population Genetics - how variation of trains in a population can lead to evolution

These three branches can be studied in three contexts:

• Bacteria
• Archaea
• Eukaryotes

Likewise, in the context of

• Evolution
• Deisease and health
• Society

Course concept:

• Flipped Classroom
• Team Based Learning

Terms

gene

chromosome

DNA

RNA

Central Dogma: DNA is transcribed into mRNA. mRNA is translated into protein (trait). The protein can be thought of as a trait. This is a general guideline. There are variations in different cases.

DNA → RNA → protein

   Transcription       Translation

$$ \text{DNA} \rightarrow \text{mRNA} \rightarrow \text{protein} $$

$$ \ce{DNA -> mRNA -> protein} $$

DNA is drawn as a double helix.

Gene is a piece of the DNA chain.

Gene Glut2 → protein Glut2

Glut2 protein is a receptor on the outside of a cell that brings glucose into the cell.

genetic variation = differences in inherited traits found in individuals in a population

example: Glut2 mutation where glucose enters the cell less efficiently. This mutation is associated with Diabetes Type II.

Genotype → → Phenotype

- DNA in a gene is copied to produce an RNA transcript called messenger RNA (mRNA). This is carred out by an enzyme called RNA polymerase which uses available bases from the nucleus of the cell to form the mRNA.

Gene transfer - the transfer of genetic information between organisms. Can be vertical or horizontal.

Vertical gene transfer is better known as sexual reproduction, from parent to offspring.

Horizontal gene transfer is directly from one organism to another.

vertical gene transfer

translation

aka Lateral Gene Transfer (LGT)

mechanisms

• transformation
• transduction
• conjugation

Gene delivery = artificial HGT

The cell nucleus contains 46 chromosomes, 23 pairs, 22 non-sexual, 21 sexual. One chromosome is a long strand of DNA. DNA is a protein. A section of DNA is named a gene. A gene defines a trait.

The human body is made of proteins. Types of proteins: Membrane DNA

One DNA molecule IE 1 chromosome contains billions of atoms arranged in pairs.one DNA molecule contains hundreds or thousands of genes. New line Gene expression The gene causes a protein molecule to be created.

We want to understand intelligence. Intelligence is related to thought. our best guess is that intelligence and thought are functions of the brain. To understand the brain we study neurology and psychology. Neurology requires an understanding of neurotransmitters and hormones which are proteins. To understand proteins we must and understand basic chemistry, how atoms combine to molecules. A protein is a molecule.

Furthermore one aspect of AI is named genetic algorithms. to understand these algorithms we need and understanding of genetics.

Crispr, Casp competition every two years, AlphaFold from deep mind wins the competition,

CRISPR, gene editing animation https://youtu.be/4YKFw2KZA5o

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zwibgNGe4aY

Sapolsky Molecular Genetics I https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_dRXA1_e30o&list=PL150326949691B199&index=6

https://opentextbc.ca/biology/chapter/2-3-biological-molecules/

carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids

Biological macromolecules are organic, meaning that they contain carbon. In addition, they may contain hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur, and additional minor elements.

$$\require{mhchem}$$

$\ce{CH4}$ = methane, the simplest organic carbon molecule

Figure 2.13 These examples show three molecules (found in living organisms) that contain carbon atoms bonded in various ways to other carbon atoms and the atoms of other elements.

(a) This molecule of stearic acid has a long chain of carbon atoms.

$$\ce{C17H35CO2H}$$

(b) Glycine, a component of proteins, contains carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, and hydrogen atoms.

© Glucose, a sugar, has a ring of carbon atoms and one oxygen atom.

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<iframe width="540" height="315" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/_dRXA1_e30o?start=663&end=777" frameborder="0"></iframe>

Functions:

• structural, hold the shape of cells together

• messengers, hormones, neurotransmitters, fit into other things, lock and key

• enzymes - catalyze reactions

• shape, changing to effect function, as in channel

made up of amino acids, approximately 20 different amino acids

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genes specify proteins

made up of amino acids, approximately 20 different amino acids, each amino acid coded for with a different DNA sequence

three letters, three nucleotides

DNA codes for amino acids

a string of DNA coding for a sequence of amino acids, which get plugged together to create a protein

RNA, an intermediary step (between DNA and protein)

if you know the sequence of DNA:

• you will know the sequence of RNA
• you will know the amino acid sequence
• you will know the protein that thus is made
• you will know the shape of the protein
• you will know the function of the protein

everything about protein function is built around shape

every effector protein fits into another effector protein like a “lock and key”, hormones, neurotransmitters

amino acids, attracted to or repelled from, water hydrophillic, hydrophobic amino acids are mostly swimming in water the sequence of amino acids determines the shape, based on the way amino acids fit together

(all enzymes are proteins)
enzymes, catalyze a reaction, pulling something apart, or putting two things together
this is done with a change in shape by the protein

channel

four examples of a protein that changes shape to accomplish it's function

• enzyme to break apart two things
• enzyme to put two things together
• channel, open or close to allow an ion through the cell wall
• motor

13:00

DNA → RNA → Protein

“DNA is running everything”. no. DNA knows everything.

1970's Central Dogma denied

discovery of RNA-based viruses

17:00

micromutations

one letter is changed, miscopied, changed by radiation, etc.

three base pairs

What is gene expression? https://www.yourgenome.org/facts/what-is-gene-expression#:~:text=Gene%20expression%20is%20the%20process,it%20is%20called%20gene%20expression%3F.

Robert Sapolsky: Human Behavioral Biology, lectures 4-9, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_dRXA1_e30o&index=4&list=PL150326949691B199

Eric Lander: DNA Replication, MIT Fundamentals of Biology https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DRBREvFL19g

Steven Gorsich, Central Michigan University: Introduction to Genetics, https://youtu.be/5Ez_NVQ5BY4